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When You Know Youre Not Part of a Community

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Social unit which shares commonality

A community is a social unit (a grouping of living things) with commonality such as norms, faith, values, customs, or identity. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given geographical area (east.g. a country, village, town, or neighbourhood) or in virtual infinite through communication platforms. Durable relations that extend across immediate genealogical ties also define a sense of community, of import to their identity, practice, and roles in social institutions such every bit family, home, piece of work, government, society, or humanity at big.[one] Although communities are usually small relative to personal social ties, "community" may likewise refer to large grouping affiliations such equally national communities, international communities, and virtual communities.[2]

The English-language word "community" derives from the Old French comuneté (currently "Communauté"), which comes from the Latin communitas "customs", "public spirit" (from Latin communis, "common").[3]

Human communities may take intent, conventionalities, resources, preferences, needs, and risks in common, affecting the identity of the participants and their degree of cohesiveness.[iv]

Perspectives of various disciplines [edit]

Archeology [edit]

Archaeological studies of social communities employ the term "community" in two means, paralleling usage in other areas. The first is an breezy definition of community equally a place where people used to alive. In this sense it is synonymous with the concept of an aboriginal settlement - whether a village, village, town, or metropolis. The 2nd meaning resembles the usage of the term in other social sciences: a community is a group of people living near 1 another who interact socially. Social interaction on a small calibration can be difficult to place with archaeological information. Most reconstructions of social communities by archaeologists rely on the principle that social interaction in the past was conditioned by physical altitude. Therefore, a modest village settlement likely constituted a social community and spatial subdivisions of cities and other big settlements may take formed communities. Archaeologists typically use similarities in cloth culture—from firm types to styles of pottery—to reconstruct communities in the past. This classification method relies on the assumption that people or households will share more similarities in the types and styles of their material goods with other members of a social community than they will with outsiders.[5]

Sociology [edit]

Ecology [edit]

In ecology, a community is an assemblage of populations - potentially of different species - interacting with ane another. Community ecology is the branch of environmental that studies interactions between and amid species. It considers how such interactions, along with interactions betwixt species and the abiotic surroundings, affect social structure and species richness, diversity and patterns of abundance. Species interact in three ways: contest, predation and mutualism:

  • Competition typically results in a double negative—that is both species lose in the interaction.
  • Predation involves a win/lose situation, with one species winning.
  • Mutualism sees both species co-operating in some style, with both winning.

The 2 chief types of ecological communities are major communities, which are self-sustaining and self-regulating (such as a wood or a lake), and minor communities, which rely on other communities (like fungi decomposing a log) and are the building blocks of major communities.

A simplified case of a community. A community includes many populations and how they interact with each other. This instance shows interaction between the zebra and the bush-league, and between the panthera leo and the zebra, also every bit between the bird and the organisms by the water, like the worms.

Semantics [edit]

The concept of "customs" oftentimes has a positive semantic connotation, exploited rhetorically past populist politicians and past advertisers[half-dozen] to promote feelings and associations of common well-being, happiness and togetherness[7] - veering towards an almost-achievable utopian customs, in fact.

In contrast, the epidemiological term "community transmission" can take negative implications;[8] and instead of a "criminal community"[9] one often speaks of a "criminal underworld" or of the "criminal fraternity".

Key concepts [edit]

Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft [edit]

In Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft (1887), German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies described 2 types of human association: Gemeinschaft (commonly translated as "customs") and Gesellschaft ("society" or "clan"). Tönnies proposed the Gemeinschaft–Gesellschaft dichotomy as a style to call up nearly social ties. No group is exclusively one or the other. Gemeinschaft stress personal social interactions, and the roles, values, and behavior based on such interactions. Gesellschaft stress indirect interactions, impersonal roles, formal values, and behavior based on such interactions.[10]

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In a seminal 1986 study, McMillan and Chavis[11] identify four elements of "sense of customs":

  1. membership: feeling of belonging or of sharing a sense of personal relatedness,
  2. influence: mattering, making a difference to a group and of the grouping mattering to its members
  3. reinforcement: integration and fulfillment of needs,
  4. shared emotional connexion.

A "sense of community index (SCI) was developed by Chavis and colleagues, and revised and adapted by others. Although originally designed to assess sense of community in neighborhoods, the index has been adapted for utilise in schools, the workplace, and a variety of types of communities.[12]

Studies conducted by the APPA[ who? ] indicate that young adults who feel a sense of belonging in a community, peculiarly small-scale communities, develop fewer psychiatric and depressive disorders than those who practice non take the feeling of love and belonging.[ citation needed ]

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Lewes Bonfire Nighttime procession commemorating 17 Protestant martyrs burnt at the pale from 1555 to 1557

The process of learning to adopt the behavior patterns of the customs is called socialization. The most fertile time of socialization is usually the early stages of life, during which individuals develop the skills and knowledge and learn the roles necessary to function within their culture and social environment. For some psychologists, especially those in the psychodynamic tradition, the well-nigh important period of socialization is betwixt the ages of one and 10. But socialization likewise includes adults moving into a significantly different environment where they must learn a new gear up of behaviors.[14]

Socialization is influenced primarily by the family, through which children get-go acquire community norms. Other important influences include schools, peer groups, people, mass media, the workplace, and government. The degree to which the norms of a particular lodge or community are adopted determines one'south willingness to engage with others. The norms of tolerance, reciprocity, and trust are important "habits of the heart," as de Tocqueville put it, in an private's involvement in customs.

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Community development is oft linked with customs work or community planning, and may involve stakeholders, foundations, governments, or contracted entities including non-government organisations (NGOs), universities or government agencies to progress the social well-existence of local, regional and, sometimes, national communities. More grassroots efforts, called community building or community organizing, seek to empower individuals and groups of people by providing them with the skills they need to outcome change in their ain communities.[16] These skills often assist in building political power through the formation of large social groups working for a mutual agenda. Community development practitioners must understand both how to work with individuals and how to affect communities' positions inside the context of larger social institutions. Public administrators, in contrast, need to understand community development in the context of rural and urban development, housing and economic development, and customs, organizational and business development.

Formal accredited programs conducted by universities, as role of degree granting institutions, are ofttimes used to build a knowledge base to drive curricula in public assistants, sociology and community studies. The General Social Survey from the National Stance Research Center at the Academy of Chicago and the Saguaro Seminar at the John F. Kennedy School of Authorities at Harvard University are examples of national community development in the United States. The Maxwell Schoolhouse of Citizenship and Public Affairs at Syracuse University in New York State offers core courses in customs and economical evolution, and in areas ranging from not-profit development to US budgeting (federal to local, community funds). In the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has led in providing all-encompassing research in the field through its Community Development Journal, [17] used worldwide by sociologists and community development practitioners.

At the intersection between customs evolution and community edifice are a number of programs and organizations with customs development tools. One example of this is the program of the Nugget Based Customs Evolution Institute of Northwestern University. The institute makes available downloadable tools[eighteen] to assess customs avails and make connections betwixt non-turn a profit groups and other organizations that can help in customs building. The Institute focuses on helping communities develop by "mobilizing neighborhood avails" – building from the inside out rather than the exterior in.[19] In the disability field, community building was prevalent in the 1980s and 1990s with roots in John McKnight's approaches.[20] [21]

Community building and organizing [edit]

In The Unlike Drum: Customs-Making and Peace (1987) Scott Peck argues that the nearly accidental sense of customs that exists at times of crisis can be consciously built. Peck believes that conscious community edifice is a process of deliberate design based on the knowledge and awarding of certain rules.[22] He states that this procedure goes through four stages:[23]

  1. Pseudocommunity: When people first come together, they try to be "overnice" and present what they experience are their most personable and friendly characteristics.
  2. Anarchy: People move beyond the inauthenticity of pseudo-customs and feel safe plenty to present their "shadow" selves.
  3. Emptiness: Moves across the attempts to set, heal and convert of the chaos stage, when all people get capable of acknowledging their own woundedness and brokenness, mutual to human being beings.
  4. True customs: Deep respect and true listening for the needs of the other people in this customs.

In 1991, Peck remarked that edifice a sense of community is easy simply maintaining this sense of customs is difficult in the modern earth.[24] [ further explanation needed ]

The three basic types of community organizing are grassroots organizing, coalition building, and "institution-based community organizing," (also called "broad-based community organizing," an case of which is faith-based community organizing, or Congregation-based Customs Organizing).[25]

Community building can apply a broad variety of practices, ranging from simple events (e.g., potlucks, small volume clubs) to larger-calibration efforts (e.g., mass festivals, structure projects that involve local participants rather than outside contractors).

Community building that is geared toward citizen action is ordinarily termed "community organizing."[26] In these cases, organized community groups seek accountability from elected officials and increased direct representation within controlling bodies. Where good-organized religion negotiations fail, these constituency-led organizations seek to pressure the decision-makers through a diversity of means, including picketing, boycotting, sit down-ins, petitioning, and electoral politics.

Community organizing tin focus on more than merely resolving specific bug. Organizing oft ways building a widely accessible power construction, often with the end goal of distributing ability equally throughout the community. Community organizers by and large seek to build groups that are open and democratic in governance. Such groups facilitate and encourage consensus controlling with a focus on the general health of the community rather than a specific interest group.

If communities are adult based on something they share in common, whether location or values, so ane challenge for developing communities is how to contain individuality and differences. Rebekah Nathan suggests[ according to whom? ] in her book, My Freshman Year, nosotros are drawn to developing communities totally based on sameness, despite stated commitments to diversity, such as those found on university websites.

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Participants in Diana Leafe Christian'due south "Heart of a Healthy Community" seminar circumvolve during an afternoon session at O.U.R. Ecovillage

A number of ways to categorize types of customs accept been proposed. One such breakdown is as follows:

  1. Location-based Communities: range from the local neighbourhood, suburb, village, boondocks or metropolis, region, nation or even the planet equally a whole. These are besides chosen communities of place.
  2. Identity-based Communities: range from the local clique, sub-culture, ethnic grouping, religious, multicultural or pluralistic civilisation, or the global community cultures of today. They may be included every bit communities of need or identity, such as disabled persons, or frail anile people.
  3. Organizationally-based Communities: range from communities organized informally effectually family or network-based guilds and associations to more formal incorporated associations, political decision making structures, economical enterprises, or professional associations at a pocket-size, national or international scale.

The usual categorizations of customs relations accept a number of problems:[27] (i) they tend to requite the impression that a particular community can be defined as just this kind or another; (2) they tend to conflate modern and customary community relations; (three) they tend to have sociological categories such as ethnicity or race as given, forgetting that different ethnically defined persons live in dissimilar kinds of communities —grounded, interest-based, diasporic, etc.[28]

In response to these problems, Paul James and his colleagues have developed a taxonomy that maps community relations, and recognizes that actual communities can be characterized past different kinds of relations at the same time:[29]

  1. Grounded community relations. This involves enduring zipper to item places and particular people. Information technology is the dominant grade taken by customary and tribal communities. In these kinds of communities, the land is fundamental to identity.
  2. Life-style community relations. This involves giving primacy to communities coming together around detail called ways of life, such every bit morally charged or interest-based relations or merely living or working in the same location. Hence the post-obit sub-forms:
    1. customs-life as morally bounded, a class taken by many traditional organized religion-based communities.
    2. community-life equally interest-based, including sporting, leisure-based and business communities which come together for regular moments of engagement.
    3. customs-life as proximately-related, where neighbourhood or commonality of association forms a community of convenience, or a community of place (run into below).
  3. Projected community relations. This is where a community is self-consciously treated every bit an entity to exist projected and re-created. It tin can be projected as through sparse advertisement slogan, for case gated community, or can accept the form of ongoing associations of people who seek political integration, communities of do[30] based on professional person projects, associative communities which seek to enhance and support individual creativity, autonomy and mutuality. A nation is i of the largest forms of projected or imagined community.

In these terms, communities tin be nested and/or intersecting; i community can comprise another—for example a location-based customs may incorporate a number of ethnic communities.[31] Both lists in a higher place can used in a cross-cutting matrix in relation to each other.

Internet communities [edit]

In general, virtual communities value cognition and information as currency or social resource.[32] [33] [34] [35] What differentiates virtual communities from their concrete counterparts is the extent and touch of "weak ties", which are the relationships acquaintances or strangers form to learn data through online networks.[36] Relationships among members in a virtual community tend to focus on information exchange about specific topics.[37] [38] A survey conducted past Pew Internet and The American Life Project in 2001 plant those involved in entertainment, professional, and sports virtual-groups focused their activities on obtaining information.[39]

An epidemic of bullying and harassment has arisen from the exchange of information between strangers, peculiarly amidst teenagers,[40] in virtual communities. Despite attempts to implement anti-bullying policies, Sheri Bauman, professor of counselling at the University of Arizona, claims the "most effective strategies to foreclose bullying" may cost companies revenue.[41]

Virtual Internet-mediated communities can interact with offline real-life activity, potentially forming strong and tight-knit groups such equally QAnon.[42]

See too [edit]

  • Circles of Sustainability
  • Communitarianism
  • Community theatre
  • Engaged theory
  • Outline of community
  • Wikipedia community

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ James, Paul; Nadarajah, Yaso; Haive, Karen; Stead, Victoria (2012). Sustainable Communities, Sustainable Evolution: Other Paths for Papua New Guinea. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. p. 14. [...] we define customs very broadly as a group or network of persons who are connected (objectively) to each other by relatively durable social relations that extend beyond firsthand genealogical ties and who mutually define that human relationship (subjectively) every bit important to their social identity and social do.
  2. ^ See also: James, Paul (2006). Globalism, Nationalism, Tribalism: Bringing Theory Back In – Book two of Towards a Theory of Abstract Customs. London: Sage Publications.
  3. ^ "community" Oxford Dictionaries. 2014. Oxford Dictionaries
  4. ^ Melih, Bulu (2011-10-31). Metropolis Competitiveness and Improving Urban Subsystems: Technologies and Applications: Technologies and Applications. IGI Global. ISBN978-1-61350-175-7.
  5. ^ Canuto, Marcello A. and Jason Yaeger (editors) (2000) The Archaeology of Communities. Routledge, New York. Hegmon, Michelle (2002) Concepts of Community in Archaeological Research. In Seeking the Centre: Archaeology and Ancient Communities in the Mesa Verde Region, edited by Marking D. Varien and Richard H. Wilshusen, pp. 263–79. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake Urban center.
  6. ^ Wilson, Alexander, ed. (1968). Ad and the Community. Reprints of economic classes (reprint ed.). Manchester: Manchester University Printing. p. 39. ISBN9780719003363 . Retrieved half dozen June 2021. In Uk, by far the more stylish concern is that for advertizing's value to the community.
  7. ^ Everingham, Christine (2003). Social Justice and the Politics of Community. Welfare and society : studies in welfare policy, practice and theory (reprint ed.). Aldershot: Ashgate. p. 21. ISBN9780754633983 . Retrieved 6 June 2021. Community is a very troublesome give-and-take then, having a broad range of meanings and connotations but piffling in the fashion of specific content. It is particularly useful as a rhetorical device because of its democratic and populist connotations, existence associated with 'the people', equally distinct from 'the government'.
  8. ^ For example: Basu, Mohana (13 March 2020). "What is community manual — how one can contract COVID-19 without travelling". ThePrint. Printline Media Pvt Ltd. Retrieved 6 June 2021. [...] when the source of transmission for a large number of people is not traceable it is called a community manual. [...]Most types of influenza and bird flu outbreaks in the past were known to take spread through community transmission. The outbreak of H1N1 in 2009, unremarkably known as swine flu, was primarily through community transmission. [...] In the case of community transmission, contact tracing is inadequate in containing the illness. [...] This is particularly worrisome for health officials because that means the virus is in the community but no one knows where it has come from or track its origins. This besides means the virus tin be widespread in a community.
  9. ^ Feinberg, Joel (1988). The Moral Limits of the Criminal Law: Harmless wrongdoing. Volume 4 of The Moral Limits of the Criminal Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 103. ISBN978-0-19-504253-5 . Retrieved 6 June 2021. There is, equally I have said, a law enforcement community but not a criminal customs. Why should that be?
  10. ^ Tönnies, Ferdinand (1887). Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft, Leipzig: Fues'south Verlag. An English translation of the 8th edition 1935 by Charles P. Loomis appeared in 1940 as Key Concepts of Sociology (Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft), New York: American Book Co.; in 1955 as Community and Association (Gemeinschaft und gesellschaft[sic]), London: Routledge & Kegan Paul; and in 1957 as Community and Society, E Lansing: Michigan State U.P. Loomis includes equally an Introduction, representing Tönnies' "most recent thinking", his 1931 article "Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft" in Handwörterbuch der Soziologie (Stuttgart, Enke Five.).
  11. ^ McMillan, D.W., & Chavis, D.M. 1986. "Sense of community: A definition and theory," p. sixteen.
  12. ^ Perkins, D.D., Florin, P., Rich, R.C., Wandersman, A. & Chavis, D.M. (1990). Participation and the social and physical environment of residential blocks: Crime and community context. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 83–115. Chipuer, H.M., & Pretty, G.G.H. (1999). A review of the Sense of Community Index: Current uses, factor construction, reliability, and further development. Journal of Community Psychology, 27(6), 643–58. Long, D.A., & Perkins, D.D. (2003). Confirmatory Cistron Assay of the Sense of Community Index and Evolution of a Cursory SCI. Periodical of Community Psychology, 31, 279–96.
  13. ^ Newman, D. 2005, p. 41.
  14. ^ Kelly, Anthony, "With Head, Heart and Hand: Dimensions of Customs Edifice" (Boolarong Press) ISBN 978-0-86439-076-9
  15. ^ Community Development Periodical, Oxford University Printing
  16. ^ ABCD Institute, in cooperation with the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. 2006. Discovering Community Power: A Guide to Mobilizing Local Assets and Your Organization's Capacity. [ dead link ]
  17. ^ ABCD Constitute. 2006. Welcome to ABCD Archived 2000-08-19 at the Wayback Machine.
  18. ^ Lutfiyya, Z.Thou (1988, March). Going for it": Life at the Gig Harbor Grouping Home. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Center on Human Policy, Research and Training Center on Community Integration.
  19. ^ McKnight, J. (1989). Across Customs Services. Evanston, IL: Northwestern Academy, Middle of Urban Affairs and Policy Research.
  20. ^ Chiliad. Scott Peck, (1987). The Different Drum: Customs-Making and Peace, pp. 83–85.
  21. ^ Peck (1987), pp. 86–106.
  22. ^ Yard. Scott Peck (1991). "The Joy of Customs" Archived 2008-05-17 at the Wayback Machine. An interview with Yard. Scott Peck by Alan Atkisson. In Context #29, p. 26.
  23. ^ Jacoby Chocolate-brown, Michael, (2006), Building Powerful Customs Organizations: A Personal Guide To Creating Groups That Tin can Solve Problems and Modify the World (Long Haul Press)
  24. ^ Walls, David (1994) "Ability to the People: Thirty-5 Years of Customs Organizing". From The Workbook, Summer 1994, pp. 52–55. Retrieved on: June 22, 2008.
  25. ^ Gerhard Delanty, Customs, Routledge, London, 2003.
  26. ^ James, Paul (2006). Globalism, Nationalism, Tribalism: Bringing Theory Dorsum In – Volume 2 of Towards a Theory of Abstract Customs. London: Sage Publications.
  27. ^ James, Paul; Nadarajah, Yaso; Haive, Karen; Stead, Victoria (2012). Sustainable Communities, Sustainable Development: Other Paths for Papua New Guinea (pdf download). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Printing.
  28. ^ Etienne Wenger, Communities of Do: Learning, Pregnant and Identity, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1998.
  29. ^ Tropman John E., Erlich, John 50. and Rothman, Jack (2006), "Tactics and Techniques of Community Intervention" (Wadsworth Publishing)
  30. ^ Ridings, Catherine Grand., Gefen, David (2017). From the couch to the keyboard: Psychotherapy in cyberspace. In S. Kiesler (Ed.), Culture of the Net (pp. 71–102). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Assembly, cited in Binik, Y. 1000., Cantor, J., Ochs, E., & Meana, Grand. (1997).
  31. ^ Ridings, Catherine M., Gefen, David (2017). Asynchronous learning networks every bit a virtual classroom. Communications of the ACM, forty (ix), 44–49, cited in Hiltz, South. R., & Wellman, B. (1997).
  32. ^ Ridings, Catherine One thousand., Gefen, David (2017). A slice of life in my virtual community. In Fifty. M. Harasim (Ed.), Global networks: Computers and international communication (pp. 57–fourscore). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Printing, cited in Rheingold, H. (1993a).
  33. ^ Ridings, Catherine M., Gefen, David (2017). Atheism, sexual activity and databases: The Net as a social technology. In S. Kiesler (Ed.), Civilisation of the Internet (pp. 35–51). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, cited in Sproull, Fifty., & Faraj, S. (1997).
  34. ^ Ridings, Catherine Thousand., Gefen, David (2017). The kindness of strangers: The usefulness of electronic weak ties for technical advice. Organization Science, 7 (2), 119–135, cited in Constant, D., Sproull, L., & Kiesler, S. (1996).
  35. ^ Baym, N. K. (2000). Tune in, log on: Soaps, fandom and online community. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc.
  36. ^ Wellman, B., & Gulia, M. (1999a). The network ground of social back up: A network is more than the sum of its ties. In B. Wellman (Ed.), Networks in the global hamlet: Life in gimmicky communities (pp. 83–118). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
  37. ^ Horrigan, J. B., Rainie, L., & Play a joke on, S. (2001). Online communities: Networks that nurture long-altitude relationships and local ties. Retrieved October 17, 2003 from http://www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/Report1.pdf Archived 2009-02-19 at the Wayback Machine.
  38. ^ Smith, Peter K.; Mahdavi, Jess; Carvalho, Manuel; Fisher, Sonja; Russell, Shanette; Tippett, Neil (2008). "Cyberbullying: its nature and touch in secondary school pupils". The Journal of Kid Psychology and Psychiatry. 49 (4): 376–385. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01846.x. PMID 18363945.
  39. ^ Wellemeyer, James (July 17, 2019). "Instagram, Facebook and Twitter struggle to incorporate the epidemic in online bullying". MarketWatch . Retrieved September thirty, 2019.
  40. ^ Dickson, E.J. (22 January 2021). "The QAnon Community Is in Crunch — Simply On Telegram, It's Also Growing". Rolling Stone. Rolling Stone, LLC. ISSN 0035-791X. Retrieved 18 February 2021. On the encrypted messaging app Telegram, however, which is currently serving equally a breastwork of far-correct extremism, the QAnon customs is not only thriving, just growing, co-ordinate to information from the Center for Hate and Extremism.

References [edit]

  • Barzilai, Gad. 2003. Communities and Police force: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
  • Beck, U. 1992. Chance Society: Towards a New Modernity. London: Sage: 2000. What is globalization? Cambridge: Polity Printing.
  • Chavis, D.M., Hogge, J.H., McMillan, D.Westward., & Wandersman, A. 1986. "Sense of customs through Brunswick'southward lens: A outset await." Periodical of Community Psychology, 14(1), 24–40.
  • Chipuer, H.M., & Pretty, Thou.G.H. (1999). A review of the Sense of Community Index: Electric current uses, cistron structure, reliability, and further development. Journal of Community Psychology, 27(6), 643–58.
  • Christensen, K., et al. (2003). Encyclopedia of Customs. 4 volumes. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  • Cohen, A. P. 1985. The Symbolic Structure of Community. Routledge: New York.
  • Durkheim, Émile. 1950 [1895] The Rules of Sociological Method. Translated past S.A. Solovay and J.H. Mueller. New York: The Free Press.
  • Cox, F., J. Erlich, J. Rothman, and J. Tropman. 1970. Strategies of Community Organization: A Book of Readings. Itasca, IL: F.Due east. Peacock Publishers.
  • Effland, R. 1998. The Cultural Evolution of Civilizations Mesa Community Higher.
  • Giddens, A. 1999. "Gamble and Responsibleness" Modern Law Review 62(i): one–10.
  • James, Paul (1996). Nation Formation: Towards a Theory of Abstract Customs . London: Sage Publications.
  • Lenski, M. 1974. Human being Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
  • Long, D.A., & Perkins, D.D. (2003). Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Sense of Customs Alphabetize and Development of a Brief SCI. Journal of Community Psychology, 31, 279–96.
  • Lyall, Scott, ed. (2016). Customs in Modern Scottish Literature. Brill | Rodopi: Leiden | Boston.
  • Nancy, Jean-Luc. La Communauté désœuvrée – philosophical questioning of the concept of customs and the possibility of encountering a not-subjective concept of it
  • Muegge, Steven (2013). "Platforms, communities and business concern ecosystems: Lessons learned about entrepreneurship in an interconnected world". Technology Innovation Management Review. 3 (February): five–fifteen. doi:x.22215/timreview/655.
  • Newman, D. 2005. Sociology: Exploring the Compages of Everyday Life, Chapter 5. "Building Identity: Socialization" Archived 2012-01-06 at the Wayback Car Pine Forge Press. Retrieved: 2006-08-05.
  • Putnam, R.D. 2000. Bowling Alone: The plummet and revival of American community. New York: Simon & Schuster
  • Sarason, South.B. 1974. The psychological sense of community: Prospects for a community psychology. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 1986. "Commentary: The emergence of a conceptual center." Journal of Customs Psychology, 14, 405–07.
  • Smith, Thousand.K. 2001. Customs. Encyclopedia of breezy educational activity. Last updated: January 28, 2005. Retrieved: 2006-07-15.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community

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